What is opium poppy used for

In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript. This study is the first to report the successful development of a method to extract opium poppy Papaver somniferum L. DNA from heroin samples. Determining of the source of an unknown heroin sample forensic geosourcing is vital to informing domestic and foreign policy related to counter-narcoterrorism.

Current profiling methods focus on identifying process-related chemical impurities found in heroin samples. This study focuses on methods to optimize the DNA extraction and amplification of samples with low levels of degraded DNA and inhibiting compounds such as heroin. We compared modified commercial-off-the-shelf extraction methods such as the Qiagen Plant, Stool and the Promega Maxwell RNA-LEV tissue kits for the ability to extract opium poppy DNA from latex, raw and cooked opium, white and brown powder heroin and black tar heroin.

Opium poppy DNA was successfully detected in all poppy-derived samples, including heroin. The modified Qiagen stool method with post-extraction purification and a two-stage, dual DNA polymerase amplification procedure resulted in the highest DNA yield and minimized inhibition. This paper describes the initial phase in establishing a DNA-based signature method to characterize heroin.

The heroin epidemic has become a widespread domestic issue for the American people; it has touched the lives of families who have lost loved ones to heroin overdoses and is ubiquitous in the mainstream media. The heroin epidemic shows no signs of slowing. The number of individuals using heroin approached one million by the end of , an increase from previous years 1. Investigative and intelligence information regularly compiled by such entities enable the U.

In addition, the opium poppy cultivation and heroin production in various source countries are also being investigated. Opium poppy Papaver somniferum L. While the poppy straw harvested from cultivation is generally employed by pharmaceutical entities, the liquid or dried sap known as opium latex or gum that is obtained by lancing the outer surface of poppy pods is the starting material for the clandestine production of heroin.

The research into opium alkaloid chemistry began with the isolation of morphine in the early s. Several publications cite the presence of 80 or more alkaloids present in opium. The alkaloid composition of opium can be varied because of agronomical, climatic, or cultivar differences.

The U. The HSP involves four diverse signature methodologies that are independently employed 2 , 3 , 4 unpublished research at the laboratory on Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry. Despite the significance of poppy varieties and their unique alkaloid profiles in the HSP, there have not been efforts to develop a signature method using opium poppy DNA.

The chemical processing steps involved in producing heroin from opium require extreme alkaline and acidic pHs and high temperatures As a result, heroin samples are expected to contain exceedingly limited amounts of damaged and degraded poppy DNA. The lack of development efforts were likely due to the low likelihood of obtaining a suitable DNA signature. However, the genetic profiling of opium poppy remained a topic of great interest to stakeholders such as the Drug Enforcement Administration Special Testing and Research Laboratory 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , Advancements in DNA amplification and sequencing technologies in the last decade prompted an innovative scientific investigation into utilizing the poppy DNA fragments detected in heroin as a classification tool.

The genetic characterization of Papaver Somniferum L. The genesis of this applied work relied on foundational genomic research that began characterizing the opium poppy. This has been central to the ability to exploit the opium poppy DNA for use in determining population-based genetic identity. The diploid nature of the poppy genome imparts a much simpler workflow for genetic identification, specifically because it mirrors the approaches used for human genetic identification using single copy DNA sequences.

The purpose of this study was to identify and characterize microsatellite nucleotide sequences based on repeat composition and abundance in the genome. It permitted further research that focused on various aspects of genetic identification of the opium poppy. Although these microsatellites are of potential use for geosourcing opium poppy, we needed to mine the genome to ensure the microsatellites and single nucleotide polymorphisms had significant levels of variation among the relevant populations to permit geosourcing.

This manuscript presents the first results attempting to employ opium poppy genetics for the classification of heroin. While the identification of variety-specific and geography-specific DNA markers continues as part of an elaborate scheme of poppy genome research, the optimization of a DNA extraction method from crudely manufactured black tar and highly refined powder heroin samples, and its subsequent amplification are presented here.

Isolation of Papaver somniferum L. DNA from heroin presents a new and increasingly complex challenge compared to that encountered in the extraction process for opium.

Heroin samples are inherently diverse. They vary in purity, cutting agents, level of processing and storage conditions. These factors have a significant impact on the resulting quality and quantity of opium poppy DNA obtained from the sample. The study design considers several factors that may affect DNA recovery from heroin samples: 1 purity of heroin, 2 quantity of sample grams , 3 extraction method, and 4 type of heroin sample white or brown powder or black tar.

Heroin samples with sufficiently high quantities total mass were selected to enable consistent comparisons across extraction methods Table 2. The input mass of heroin samples were evaluated to determine the minimum mass required for significant DNA yield. The samples consisted of a white powder heroin-HCl Each extraction method was evaluated using approximately 3.

The remaining samples did not have the sufficient quantity of material to perform this evaluation. Note, individual heroin samples were limiting and many times did not have the sample mass to permit many replicates for comparison.

This limited our ability to compare the extraction methods and unequivocally evaluate the DNA extraction methods and conditions. Note, no picture of WP-1 is available. Like-samples were then pooled during post-extraction concentration. The sample that was not lysed appeared darker and had insoluble components present that could not be removed via centrifugation.

The lysed sample went into solution rapidly and had no visible insoluble components. The white powder heroin appeared to go into solution faster than the other samples and consistently had fewer insoluble components removed during the initial preparation of samples for extraction.

This step precipitates proteins, large chromosomal DNA molecules, and other containments and will promote DNA adsorption to the silica membrane. Appearance of white powder heroin samples prepared with the lysis left and without lysis right using the Maxwell 16 RNA LEV extraction method. This indirectly provides a relative assessment of the starting quantity of heroin and poppy DNA in the sample and will allow preliminary comparison of DNA quantity and the heroin purity and type. The 1.

In practice, we recommend the use of 2. However, for the purposes of this study, 1. The NTC samples across runs had reproducible signals, with melting temperatures between This supports the conclusion that the Maxwell extraction method is not the appropriate method for samples of this type.

The results from the first run confirmed the successful amplification of poppy DNA from heroin without any background noise from the tRNA Fig. The no-template control, yeast tRNA, and one replicate of the reagent blank, did not show detectable activity in the amplification plot. The first replicate of the reagent blank had a C p value of The heroin samples had C p values of approximately The amplification displays the accumulation of double stranded DNA vs cycle, thus the increase in fluorescence at lower cycles indicate higher concentrations of DNA.

A comparison of commercially available illustra GenomiPhi v3 and in-house whole-genome amplification methods was performed. We hypothesized that the presence of damaged DNA lesions, deamination may hinder the DNA polymerase used in the commercial kit.

The in-house method included use of commercially available random hexamers DNA fragments of six bases and the 2-step amplification. The study was restricted to two samples due to the limited availability of samples. The results not shown indicated that in the current state, neither method improved the quantity of amplifiable DNA.

The data further demonstrated that both black tar and powder heroin can be amplified at low levels Table 5 and Fig. Black tar is crudely manufactured and therefore the dense, sticky, and gummy sample matrices vary from sample to sample. Despite this challenging matrix, we were able to successfully extract Papaver somniferum L. DNA from black tar heroin.

Note the table in the upper left containing the cycle threshold values Cp. Raw opium is produced through the collection and, typically, sun drying of poppy latex. This minimal processing leads to the retention of cellular material and maintains the integrity of the DNA. The challenge for raw opium is in the purification of DNA from inhibiting compounds and the texture of the sample.

The first experimental objective was to identify the lowest raw opium sample mass that would provide reliable and robust results. The absorbance data obtained from the spectrophotometer provides an indication of sample purity, and thus indicates potential PCR performance. Alkaloids such as morphine, codeine and thebaine are extracted from poppy straw by licensed processors for use in pain relief and other medications. Poppy cultivation and processing is high regulated activity and South Australian growers must meet a range of specific requirements in order to become an opium poppy grower.

The growing of poppies in South Australia presents a potentially viable and profitable rotational option for farmers who traditionally grow seed and other horticultural crops. A person cannot enter a poppy cultivation area unless accompanied by a licensed grower, authorised employee or authorised inspector.

Understanding drugs and behaviour. Kalant H. Opium revisited: a brief review of its nature, composition, non-medical use and relative risks. World Health Organisation. Toronto: Addiction Research Foundation; Opium addiction and lead poisoing.

Journal of Substance Use. Lead poisoning among opium users in Iran: an emerging health hazard. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy. Lead poisoning and health Online More at the ADF Library. View the Drug Wheel. Last updated: 10 Nov The last question arising in connexion with Papaver somniferum is the distribution of the alkaloids in the various parts of the plant. Generally speaking, there are two points to note:. The fact that from the botanical point of view it is difficult to distinguish sub-species or varieties within the species Papaver somniferum is immaterial to the agriculturalist, whose concern, whether he is engaged in the production of seeds for food or industry or in opium production, is with yield.

Agronomists have therefore studied the possibilities of developing "races" adapted to a particular climate or soil and, above all, to the particular type of production desired. For opium production the question is at present being studied at various agronomic research centres, in particular in the Turkish Soil Products Office, which is endeavouring to create types with a high alkaloid yield. Since the poppy, as has been indicated, adapts itself easily to different soil and climatic conditions, horticulturists have succeeded by dint of time and care in developing "geographical races" which are relatively constant and well-adapted to the soil and climate of the given country.

Thus efforts were made, with success, to develop closed-capsule species, and these are at present the predominating type, for instance, in Asia Minor: their capsules are larger and rounder, and consequently harvesting is easier; and in addition the morphine yield is generally two or three per cent higher than that of plants with dehiscent capsules.

The poppy is a hardy plant; it will grow in varying climates but cannot endure extreme cold. In a cold climate, its opium yield is greatly diminished: climatic conditions, particularly humidity, affect the yield more than any other factor.

In damp climates the poppy is attacked by the peronospora and other plant diseases. Moreover, if there is much rain, the plants grow very tall and may be beaten down when they are ripe. Heavy rain at the time of harvesting washes away some of the latex and may even wash it off completely. Thus the ideal conditions are snow in winter, rain in spring and dry weather while the plant is mature. As the poppy cannot stand extreme cold, it cannot be cultivated in frosty climates unless there is a sufficient covering of snow in winter to protect the seed and the young plant.

The poppy is very sensitive to wind, particularly when it is maturing. The capsule is then comparatively heavy; it may be beaten down and the latex lost. The poppy does not like either heavy, clayey soils or sandy soils.

The ideal is an average soil treated with. The poppy is an annual and may be sown in autumn or spring: the choice depends on the "race", on economic conditions and, above all, on climate. The most important point is the alternation of rainy and dry seasons, which determines the opium yield.

In poppy-growing areas, which are generally warm temperate zones, the sowing time may therefore begin in September and continue to as late as April. Generally speaking, the autumn poppy is hardier and has a higher yield, but in regions where the winter is severe it naturally runs greater risks than the spring poppy. Germination lasts two to three weeks; about a month later the first four leaves appear; and two or three weeks later the stem begins to form. The plant reaches full development in about two months.

The flowering season varies according to climatic and other conditions and according to sowing date; the plant flowers by day and the flower lasts thirty to forty hours. After the petals fall the capsule continues to grow and is ripe in about two weeks. The poppy requires a rich soil and impoverishes it rapidly.

A system of rotation must therefore be followed, or alternatively the plant must be sown on land that has lain fallow or on intensively fertilized land. The use of chemical fertilizers, which are very successful, is not very wide-spread in the poppy-growing regions.